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The tragic occurrences accompanying the destruction of
Jerusalem and of the temple are sufficiently told in detail in Josephus, the
Talmud, and Midrashim, and it is useless to speak of them in this place. I will
therefore confine myself to the history subsequent thereto.
Jerusalem was, unfortunately for us, destroyed by the Roman
general Titus, in the reign of his father, the Emperor Vespasian. It is doubtful
whether the city was completely demolished by the Romans, or whether they did or
did not cause the plough to pass over it, as the accounts on this head are very
contradictory. Josephus, in his Jewish War, book 7. chap 1., says that the army
of Titus pulled down and destroyed the whole city, so that it could not be
distinguished any more where it had stood, and that he left standing but a few
towers, as a token of his prowess to posterity; but he does not mention that the
city was ploughed up. Whereas in the Talmud, finis Taanith, it is stated that
the plough was actually passed over the site of Jerusalem, though this ploughing
is there mentioned to have been done by Turnus Rufusטורנוס רופוס,
who lived at a later period, at the time of Rabban Gamliel, but not by Titus. In
other books, the name of the one who passed the plough over Jerusalem is given
as Titus Aniosrufus, or Tyrannus Rufus; and in Yerushalmi Taanith, and Echa
Rabbethi, is called quite briefly Rufus. It would, however, appear that this
representation of utter destruction must not be taken to very literally, since
we find in several passages of the Talmud--for
instance, in Berachoth, 3a, finis
Makkoth, &c.--mention made of
חרבות ירושלם
ruins in Jerusalem; and the very passage of finis Taanith reads
כשחרש טורנוס
רופוס את
האולם "When Turnus Rufus ploughed up the outer
hall of the temple," which would denote that only the temple was wasted in
this manner, but not the whole city of Jerusalem, of which ruins were allowed to
exist.
In the year 3844 (84), Domitian, the brother of Titus,
ascended the Roman throne. He was a wicked, tyrannical ruler, and in especial
hated the persecuted the Jews. He endeavoured to destroy all the descendants of
David. It was under him that, as just said, Turnus Rufus pulled down the remains
of the temple, and passed the plough over its site. He also pronounced sentence
of death over Rabban Gamliel, who was of the family of David, though he
succeeded in escaping, as is related in Taanith, 29a. This Domitian was at length slain by his own servants, after he
had reigned fourteen years.
In the year 3858 (98) Nerva, a worthy regent, and a humane
man, who was at the same time a friend to the Jews, assumed the government. He
endeavoured everywhere to improve the condition of our people, and to render
more tolerable the oppression they suffered under the Roman proconsuls. He,
however, only reigned two years.
He was succeeded, in 3860 (100), by Trajan, who was also a
very great friend to the Jews; and he gave them, at the time of Rabbi Joshua Ben
Chananiah, the permission to rebuild the temple, of which, however, they neither
could nor would make any use, as is circumstantially told in Bereshith Rabbah,
chap. 64. In his reign there arose in the city of Bither
ביתר the celebrated Bar Kocheba, i.e. Son of the Star
(Num. 24:17), but later called Bar Kusiba, i.e. son of falsehood. He alleged
himself to be the regent (messiah?) of the Jews, and rebelled against the
Romans, and caused a great slaughter among them, but more especially among the
Roman and Greek inhabitants of the island of Cyprus. Trajan sent his sister’s
son, Hadrian, as general to Palestine, to fight against Bar Kocheba; he
contended against him for several years, but was not able to defeat him. Trajan
reigned eighteen years.
In 3878 (118) Hadrian ascended the Roman throne. In the
second year of his reign he at length overcame Bar Kocheba, through means of his
general, Julius Severus, who had been previously stationed in Britain (England).
He captured the uncommonly large and strong city of Bither, and caused such
wasting and destruction in Palestine that they exceeded the misery produced by
Titus. He destroyed 50 strong places and 985 towns and villages, and there fell
580,000 Jews by the sword, besides the large numbers who were carried off by
famine, fire, and the pestilence, and not counting those who were dragged away
into foreign lands, and sold as slaves. Near Hebron, four
human beings were sold for one seah, about a peck of barley. ["O Lord, behold,
and see to whom Thou hast done thus." Lam. 2:20.] Near Bither lay the dead, in
a stretch of 18 mills (13½ English miles), for years without interment, till
the reign of the succeeding emperor; because Hadrian would not permit the slain
to be buried (Yerushalmi Taanith, 4.) This unfortunate war caused the total
destruction of Palestine, and is called, in Sotah 9., § 14, Polemos ha-acharon
פולמוס
האחרון, "the last war." According to
Yerushalmi Peah, 7., not an olive tree was at that time to be found in all
Palestine, so entirely was everything destroyed. Under the reign of this tyrant
the following martyrs were executed: Rabbi Akiba, at Cæsarea; Rabbi Chaninah,
son of Teradion; Rabbi Yishab, the scribe (Hassopher); Rabbi Chutzphith, the
interpreter; Rabbi Elazar, son of Shamua; and Rabbi Judah, son of Baba.
After this devastation of the country, Hadrian had
Jerusalem rebuilt, though less than its former extent, and called it Aelia
Capitolina, after his own name Aelianus Hadrianus, and Jupiter Capitolinus;
whence Jerusalem is called in Greek books Ailia. He also placed on the temple
mount the images of Jupiter and Venus נוגה and
כוכב, which remained standing 180 years, till destroyed
by the Empress Helena, mother of Constantine. Even at this day there is found,
on the farthest end of the southern city and temple mount wall, a large stone
with the following inscription:*
T I T O
A E L H A D R I
A N O
A N T O N I N O A V G
P I O
P P P O N T I F A V G V
R
D D D D D
* The letters of this inscription are each five inches in height.
 This stone, however,
is placed accidentally upside down, so that the writing has to be read reversed.
It would appear that formerly there stood on this spot a monument, to which this
stone was affixed; and as it fell down at a later period, the Mahomedans found
this large stone when they rebuilt or repaired the city and temple mount wall,
and placed it in its present position in the clumsy manner we find it, without
troubling themselves about the inscription.
Hadrian also caused
a wall to be built around Jerusalem, and allowed no Jews to come even within the
environs of the city (Lamen. 5:2). It was only at a later period that they were
permitted to go to the surrounding mountains, probably the Mount of Olives, to
cast a mournful, sorrowing look towards the seat of their ancient glory. Later
yet, they purchased from the Greek and Roman garrison the permission to enter
its precincts once a year, on the day of its destruction, the 9th of
Ab (August), in order to weep there for their mournful fate, and the fall and
dispersion of Israel.
In 3900 (140),
Antoninus, son-in-law of Hadrian, became emperor. He was a great friend of the
Jews, and lived at the time of Rabbi Judah Hannassi, the author of the Mishna;
he was often for a length of time in the town of Rami in Galilee (see above,
art. Rimon in Zebulun), and lived on terms of the greatest intimacy with this
Rabbi Judah. According to Yerush. Megillah, 1., Antoninus privately embraced
Judaism. It appears to me that he caused the unburied dead around Bither to be
interred, as was stated above. He reigned twenty-four years.
He was succeeded in
3924 (164) by his son-in-law Marcus Aurelius, also called Marcus Antoninus. From
Abodah Zarah, 10a, it would appear
that Antoninus had a son called Asverus (Severus); if this be well-founded, the
prince must have died in his father’s time, since the government was
transferred to the son-in-law.
Commodus, the
grandson of Marcus Aurelius, became Emperor in 3943 (183);* he was a cruel
ruler, and an enemy to the Jews.
* The usual authorities place the death of Marcus three years earlier,
180.
Septimius Severus, a
severe and harsh governor, became emperor in 3955 (195). In the year 3964 (204)
he made an irruption into the East, and after several bloody battles effected
important conquests, and penetrated as far as the Tigris. In the later years of
his life, he became more just and humane.
Alexander Severus, a
good emperor, ascended the throne in 3985 (225). In 3994 (234) a fierce struggle
spring up in Palestine between the Jews and Samaritans, the former under the
guidance of a certain Caudius. This contest lasted so long that Alexander was at
length induced to interfere, and restored peace in the country by the execution
of many of both parties.
Decius Troanus
commenced his reign in 4014 (254); his rule lasted but about 1½ years. He is
also called Tarchanianus, and is, according to my view, the Tarchinus
טרכינוס of Sukkah, 51b,
who caused many of the Jews who were settled in Alexandria, in Egypt, to be
destroyed. In one edition this passage reads Alexander of Macedon; but this is
incorrect, and should be Tarchinus, as it is in the Yerushalmi and Midrash. (See
above, Sela Rimmon, in Benjamin.)
Diocletian assumed
the government in 4049 (289). He was of mean birth, and a native of Dalmatia; he
was carried in his infancy to Syria, and was, according to Bereshith Rabbah, 63,
a swineherd near Tiberias, and entered afterwards into the Roman army as private
soldier, and rose at last so high that he was chosen Emperor. He lived a long
time in the East, at Banias, and caused the Bachr Chams to be dug (see chap. 2.,
first note.) At the present day, there is still to be seen in Alexandria of
Egypt, the column of Diocletian, 99 feet in height, 28 in circumference, with a
shaft of 73 feet in length. It is also called Pompey’s Pillar.
Constantine the
Great became Emperor in 4072 (312). He was the first monarch who embraced
Christianity; the earlier Emperors persecuted and destroyed the followers of
this religion in every way and manner, till Constantine and his mother, Helena,
professed the same. He caused churches and monasteries to be built in every
direction; and also the alleged sepulchre of the founder of their religion was
discovered or rather invented by the keen sight of the pious Helena, and
supplied with a church by Constantine. He also embellished Byzantium, and called
it Constantinople; the Jews name it
קושטאנטין or
קושטא Costo, or Costantin. The great Roman empire
was now divided into the eastern and western; the first is known as the
Greco-Romano, the chief seat of the government of which was at Constantinople.
Palestine belonged to this, the eastern division, and many believers in
Christianity now began to settle in the Holy Land.
At that time there
lived at Rome a Jew named Joseph, who went over to Christianity, and acquired
thereby much respect with Constantine, and obtained from him the permission to
appear openly as converter of the people, and to build churches and monasteries.
To carry out his object he travelled into Palestine* as missionary, and
commenced to preach publicly in order to persuade the Jews, of whom there were a
great many in Cæsarea, Tiberias, Nazara, and Kefr Tanchum, as in fact all these
towns were inhabited by Jews solely, to adopt his religion, and he already made
a commencement to build churches. But the Jews regarded him not, and would not
permit him to construct the like buildings in the places just named. He reported
his want of success, on account of this opposition of the Jews, to Constantine,
who thereupon imposed on them heavy taxes and fines, and caused a great many of
them to be put to death. Constantine reigned till the year 4102 (342). See Abn
Ezra, end of Daniel [should be 4097 (337)].
* "Thy destroyers and those who pull thee down proceed from thy own self" (Isaiah 49:17), so is the rendering in our sense of this verse; and this
then was the first missionary of the destructive kind who came to Palestine. At
present there are also many here, who are sent hither from the pious country of
Britain. But Constantine is already dead, and no one molests us with small or
large exactions or contributions as fines for contumacy. The times do
change!
In the year 4098
(338), there was held a great synod of many Christian clergymen, in order to
discuss the character of Jesus of Nazareth; and all agreed to deny him all
divine attributes, and that he could be declared nothing more than a prophet.
Constantius
commenced his reign in 4099 (339). At that time there lived a large Jewish
population in Zippori (Safuri), who showed themselves disobedient to the
Emperor; in consequence of which, he attacked them, and out of revenge for their
disobedience, he caused the city to be demolished; since that time it is but a
miserable small village.
In 4125 (365),
Julian, called the Apostate, assumed the government. He was a very great friend
of the Jews. In the second year of his reign, he gave the Nahssi of Israel, i.e.
the chief religious authority, who was at that time Rabbi Hillel, a
great-grandson of R. Judah Hannahssi, and who lived at Tiberias, the order to
rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. Preparations were actually made to carry this
resolve into effect, when the sudden death of this good prince frustrated the
measure, and the work was left unaccomplished. Julian was an ardent persecutor
of the Christians, and repealed all the contributions and taxes with which
Constantine had burdened and punished the Jews, and in short abolished all
unfavourable laws with regard to our people.
Valentinian ascended
the throne in 4128 (368); he was likewise a humane man, and especially kind to
the Jews. In the twelfth year of his reign, 4140 (380), he commanded to surround
Jerusalem with a new wall, and promised to make liberal expenditure for this
purpose; but he died in the same year, and this project was also frustrated.
Theodosius I.
commenced his reign in 4140 (380). He was a persecutor of Arian Christians, but
a friend to the Jews; and he made it known in all his empire that they should
have everywhere unrestricted freedom in the exercise of their religion, and that
no one should place any obstacles in their way.
Arcadius commenced
his reign in 4155 (395); he also was a wise ruler and a friend to the Jews.
Theodosius II
reigned in 4172* (412); he was cruel and inimical to the Jews. In the eighth
year of his reign (4180?) he ordered all the Jews to be driven out of Alexandria
in Egypt, and commanded that all the contributions and donations which were
collected for the Nahssi† of Palestine, for the purpose of defraying the
general benevolent objects among the Jews, and the promotion of the study of the
law and similar purposes, should be delivered into the imperial treasury.
* Too late by four years.--TRANSLATOR.
† He nevertheless did not reside "any more in Palestine, but in
Babylon, although he bore the name נשיא
הארץ "The Prince of the Land."
In 4288 (528)
Justinian the Great became Emperor. He was a very wise and good prince, and a
friend to the Jews. In the year 4316 (556), a bloody contest arose between the
Jews and the Christians residing in Cæsarea, in which very many, nearly all of
the latter, were destroyed. Justinian had the matter investigated, and declared
that the Jews had been in the right.
Maurice reigned in
4244 (584); he was a good and mild prince. At this time, the East was visited by
many and violent earthquakes; through which means the building commenced by
Julian on the temple mount, was thrown down. The benevolent Maurice sent Jewish
builders from Constantinople to Jerusalem to restore it.
Heraclius reigned in
4373 (613). He was engaged in war with the Persian King, Chosroes II. (Kusarai).
The Jews in Tiberias, Nazara, and the inhabitants of the mountains of Galilee,
were for the Persians. Chosroes penetrated as far as Jerusalem, which he
besieged a long time, and took it at length in the month of Sivan, 4374 (June,
614), by assault. He caused a terrible destruction in the same, destroyed all
the churches and monasteries, and carried the Christian Patriarch away with him
as prisoner of war. About 20,000 Christians lost their lives in this
catastrophe; those that remained were likewise carried away into captivity by
Chosroes. He next conquered all Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, and carried off in
every place a large number of Christians as slaves.
Heraclius and his
son Constantine now advanced with a large army and attacked Chosroes furiously;
they penetrated as far as Gaza, when the Persians took to flight. At last,
however, peace was concluded. Heraclius again obtained possession of Jerusalem,
where he would not allow a single Jew to take up his residence, and endeavoured,
moreover, to persecute and to destroy them everywhere; for his sharp-sighted
court astrologer* had predicted to him, from an inspection of the stars, that
his empire should soon fall into the power of a circumcised nation, which he
interpreted to be the Jews, but he knew not that the Arabs (Mahomedans) were
likewise circumcised. Jerusalem, therefore, remained attached to the Greek
empire till 4396 (637).
* Even to this day this notable personage has great influence in the
courts of the oriental rulers; and in difficult cases, he is requested to deduce
and read the decision and judgment in the premises from the dear and innocent
stars. So, also, did the astrologer of Serif Pacha, of Damascus, as late as 5600
(1840) read quite clearly and truly in the stars, that the wicked gluttonous
Jews of that place, had butchered and eaten up the old father Thomas (of which occurrence, I may perhaps say something hereafter); and this oracular decision
was so evident, as the light of the sun, stars rather, to the just and tolerant
Pacha, that he undertook the most stringent measures against the Jews, by
torturing and imprisoning them without any better cause than this unreasonable
suspicion. (Compare Jud. 5:20.)
A Short Review of
this Period, and of the Situation of Science and of the Learned During the Same.
After the
destruction of Jerusalem, the seat of the Jewish sages, the Sanhedrin, was first
in Jabné (Jamnia), but was afterwards transferred to Galilee, to wit, Usha,
Shafram, Beth-Sheärim, Zippori, and Tiberias. It was in the three last-named
towns, in the times of Rabbi Judah Hannahssi, who compiled the Mishna, about
3979 (209). He died soon after, and his son, Rabbi Gamliel, succeeded him in the
Nahssi dignity. He was succeeded by his son, Rabbi Jehudah Nessiah, and he, in
the year 4118 (358), by his son Rabbi Hillel, who was the last Nahssi in
Palestine. The seat of the later Nessiim (chiefs), as also that of the most
learned men, and of the sciences and wisdom in general, was the land of Babel,
as it had become by degrees soon after the death of Rabbi Judah Hannahssi. The
principal cities where the Jewish colleges flourished, were Sora, Nahardeä, and
likewise Pumbaditha. Rabbi Yochanan, a scholar of Rabbi Judah Hannahssi,
compiled the Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) about the year 4030 (279). Rab
Ashi, however, compiled the Talmud Babli (the Babylonian Talmud) in Babel, about
the year 4129 (367); but the work was not closed till the year 4260 (400).
We know but little
of the learned men of Palestine after the decease of Rabbi Hillel. But in the
year 4280 (420) there was a slight difference between the Nahssi and the
ריש גלותא Resh Gelutha (chief of
the captivity), who was next in rank after the Nahssi, for which reason he left
Babel and went to Palestine, where he was received as chief by the learned men
of that country.
Since, as I have
related, the Emperor Maurice sent, in the year 4344 (584), Jews from
Constantinople to Jerusalem to reconstruct the buildings on the Temple Mount,
which had been thrown down by the earthquake, it would appear that at that time
there were but few Jews in Jerusalem and vicinity, or else there would have been
no necessity to send others thither from so great a distance.
The situation of our
people during this period, was not continually the same, but always in
accordance with the disposition of the reigning sovereign; since, as already
related, some of them were eminently friendly, whilst others were equally
bitterly inimical to the Jews, and they, accordingly, were either favoured or
persecuted, as the whim of the moment dictated.
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