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Since the human mind, when witnessing any
extraordinary state of circumstances, can only rest satisfied after it
has perceived and digested the events to which this state of things has
given rise, even where it is not able to favour this new state, nor to
approve of it: I feel myself impelled to endeavour to explain the
present struggle in the bosom of Judaism by a retrospective glance at
the occurrences of bygone days. Because the contest now proceeding
between ancient customs and usages on the one side and philosophy on the
other; between an adherence to figurative forms, intended to bear upon
vital ideas of religion, and in connexion with which they were first
introduced to the minds of the people, and the plain unveiling of these
ideas themselves; between the decayed results of a former mode of
thinking and the substitution, therefore, of the result of opinions of
more recent origin—presents one of the most powerful movements which
developes itself in the history of the world. The dissensions between
philosophy and the belief in the necessity of forms have existed at all
times; occasionally concealed from public observation, or at least only
perceived by a few individuals, at other times, however, openly exciting
the two contending parties, when the champions of both these views
entered the battle-field against each
<<243>>other with spiritual arms, and
leaving it again, each claiming the victory, but in fact leaving the
decision as doubtful as ever, thus kindling the flame for a renewed
struggle at a later period.
When the Arabs became acquainted, through means of
translations, with the literature of the Greeks, especially their
philosophy, the Israelites did not neglect this new spiritual awakening.
Even Rabbi Saadiah Gaon favoured these studies. He endeavoured to prove
by reason, מן השכל, the
doctrines of the Jewish faith; for instance, the creation of the world
out of absolute chaos; free will, reward and punishment in a future
life, &c. He also laboured to remove from Judaism the prevailing false
opinions of his times, such as the corporeality of God;* the existence
of a Satan; the interference of God with the free agency of man; the
transmigration of the soul, &c. To effect his end he explained many
passages in the Bible as figurative, and conceded some points which
seemed at variance with philosophy.
In these endeavours he was followed by Rabbenu
Hananel and Rabbenu Nissim. Another of the Gaonim, R. Samuel Ben Hophni
Hackohen advanced even the important idea “that nothing can be admitted
as true which is contradictory to reason.” Such doctrines, as may
readily be supposed, had many opponents, and R. Hayi Gaon contended that
in cases where reason and rabbinical opinions did not agree, the former
must yield to the latter.
But the greatest struggle in this respect broke out
in another country—the Provence. It was here that the religious poems
and the philosophical labours of the Spanish Jews were opposed by the
rabbinical opinions of the French Israelites; and it was here that the
works of Moses, son of Maimuni, (the Rambam,) elicited a protracted and
fierce warfare. This great talmudist, philosopher and physician charged
himself with the task of solving the difficult problem, the
reconciliation of religion with philosophy. His invaluable philosophical
work מורה נבוכים “the Guide of the
PerplexedӠ was destined to settle this important
<<244>>question. In composing
this work he endeavoured, and effectually succeeded, to reconcile
Judaism with philosophy, as he plainly expresses himself in his
introduction: “I have not written for beginners, but for the initiated,
for such men as adhere to the word of God but are driven into doubts by
philosophical erroneous views.” This collision he wished to reconcile by
rational explanations of the words of the Bible, especially those
appellations applied to the Deity which have an appearance of humanity
in them. He also teaches us, in his truly philosophical system, that the
future rewards and punishments are merely spiritual, and he denies all
corporeal happiness or sufferings in the future state.
But more influential in Judaism was his works on
the laws of the Pentateuch. In this he gives a reason for the observance
of each of these laws, and asserts that all these statutes tend to
elevate our spirit to God, and to improve our hearts in his service, and
to remove us from irrational actions. The idea, connected with the
deeds, not the external form alone, is the bond which draws us nearer to
God, and man is the agent himself to unite himself either firmly or
loosely to his Maker.
In Spain, in Africa, in France, and in Germany, he
was highly esteemed, and his adversaries, Rabbi Abraham ben David, in
Provence, and Rabbi Meir ben Todros Hallevi, in Toledo, were not
regarded. The latter complained that the Moreh strengthens the
root of religion, but lops off the branches; that it repairs the
breaches in the foundation, but cuts down the fences that in its throat
there are praises of God, but that on its tongue there is life as well
as death; that it draws us near with the left and repels us with the
right hand; and that no one studying it can remain pure.
The writings of Maimonides, notwithstanding this
opposition, increased in popularity both in Spain and Provence; and
finally <<245>>the contest to which I alluded to above, broke out at Montpelier
ההר. R. Shelomo ben Abraham, of that
city, placed himself at the head of the opponents of Maimonides, and
effected that an interdict חרם was
pronounced against the מורה and
ספר המדע of the sage of Cordova. Armed
with this, Shelomo and his scholars went to work to raise up a party
against Maimonides; but in persecuting him they displayed a great want
of philosophical knowledge, for they did not even enter into the depth
of his system as it is elaborated in the Moreh; but they attacked him
for speaking against the corporeality of God, for calling all those
heretics who represent God as possessing bodily qualities. They also
objected to the hypothesis of the future life, as Maimonides taught it,
since he explained the feast of Leviathan, as mentioned in the Talmud,
in a figurative sense, referring to spiritual enjoyment.
R. .Moses ben Nachman (Nachmanides
רמב״ן) and R. Samuel ben Abraham Sforta
defended Maimonides, proving that his adversaries were not informed on
the points in dispute; but the contest was not ended thereby, as the
Moreh remained the thorn in the eyes of its opponents. It was then that
the illustrious R. David ben Joseph Kimchi
(רד״ק), with other supporters of Maimonides, stepped forth as the
defenders of enlightened inquiry. In this dilemma the pious Shelomoh
took recourse to denunciation. He went to the monks, saying that his
fellow-believers were becoming heretics, seduced thereto by the Egyptian
Moses, who had written books full of heresy, and as they punished their
heretics; so he begged them to remove ours likewise, and to order the
מורה andספר
המדע to be burnt. But this step was also in vain; the Christian
jurisdiction declared that those who accused were calumniators and
informers, and some of them were punished in a cruel manner, which
caused their death.
In the year 4995 A. M., Abraham the son of
Maimonides, learnt at Cairo these occurrences, and deeply affected by
the unjust censure cast on his father’s memory, he wrote the “book of
the wars of the Lord,” ספר מלחמות ה׳,
in which he exhibited the ignorance of his adversaries.
Peace was thus restored, and the orthodoxy of
Maimonides conceded; but the basis of his philosophical writings was
still contested, and half a century later, the friends of philosophy in
<<246>>Baghdad were compelled to pronounce an excommunication against all who
would calumniate Maimonides and his books.*
In the Provence the writings of Maimonides were
studied with increased ardour; the family of Tibbon, especially R.
Samuel Ebn Tibbon, produced translations of them; and the Moreh there
enjoyed numerous friends, and was approved of by the majority of
Israelites. Spain, of old the land of science, was at that time
suffering under the infliction of Christian fanaticism, which raged not
with spiritual weapons merely, but with fire and sword; and this failed
not to have an influence on the Jews. Philosophical studies were not yet
forgotten; but their flourishing period was past. R. Shelomoh ben
Adereth could therefore succeed in influencing the mind of his
contemporaries, and with the assistance of R. Asher ben Jechiel, the
celebrated Talmudist, he interdicted the study of philosophy to all
under the age of thirty years. Against this interdict the friends of
philosophy objected; and as the contest had lasted so long already,
peace was ardently desired by all. It came; but it was soon succeeded by
a sad state of things. France expelled the Jews; Spain followed the
example after some time; and the oppression heaped on us at the close of
the Middle Ages extinguished well nigh all spiritual light among us. The
champions were banished to different countries; the whole controversy
was lost sight of, and the oppression did not permit an aspiring genius
to rise up. But the books produced by the above contest still exist, and
deserve to be read in our days, in which spiritual life has been
rekindled amongst the Jews. We have reason to be proud of our ancestral
literature at that period; and it must be borne in mind that Maimonides
and his adversaries lived in an age when dark midnight prevailed
throughout Europe. The influence of Maimonides’ writings was great at
all times, and continues so to the present moment, and they have always
given an impulse to a liberal spiritual movement in Judaism.
What could not be accomplished in that distant period, owing to the
iron-handed oppression of the Middle Ages, ought to be attempted again
in our days, and we should labour to solve the all-important problem,
“how to remove from our fellow-believers both superstition and
unbelief.”
K.
New Orleans, May 25, 5608. |
